Community and Family Studies

CAFs Assessment 2- Leadership And Groups. Gandhi A bit of background about Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, also known by as Gandhi, was born on october 2nd, 1848 in Porbander, Kathawar Agency, British India. Unfortunately, Gandhi died at an evening prayer meeting, by being shot 3 times in the chest on January 30th, 1948. Gandhi was married at the age of 13 to a 14 year old named Kasturba. This was done via an arranged childhood marriage since it was apart of the custom in religion. Gandhi’s mother and father was very important in his life.Even from an early age he was taught the customs and influences for his life. Some of the attitudes that were believed to help him through his adult life were vegetarianism, fasting for self-purification and mutual tolerance between individuals of different creed. He travelled to London to study law at university. He was influenced by a vow made to his mother to observe the Hindu percepts of abstinence from meat, alcohol and promiscuity. G oing against his mothers will, Gandhi embraced vegetarianism and went onto him becoming part of a vegetarian society, and then on to becoming a teacher.His career of teaching was declined in India when he returned after look for part time work. This was his first taste to leadership and persuaded him to continue his leadership skills in a new way. Leadership Throughout Gandhi’s life he was thrown many obsticles, few of which some were discrimination, racism, injustice against Indian’s which started to question their status. This was some of the few things that influenced Gandhi to become the leader that he became.His first leadership role took place when he went to South Africa in 1893 to fight for his community and assist the Indians in opposing a bill to deny them the right to vote. He and his fellow Indian’s made many protests and signs but were suppressed by the South African government. Many of the Indian’s, including himself, were either jailed, flo gged, or shot in the process. People may not agree whether or not he was an effective leader in this particular part of his career, but as the leader of the Indians, they hailed him for his courage and persistence with persuing his goals.The South African government finally compromised with Gandhi and ideas took shape. The concept of â€Å"satyagraha† (non- violent protest) matured. This was his first sort of achievement towards his leadership. The next thing he worked on was his role in Zulu War in 1906. He argued that Indians should support the war efforts in order to legitimise their claims to full citizenship. He kept arguing and persuing. Throughout this stage of his attempt to find better acceptance of Indian’s he has to prove himself as an effective leader, and show his skills.He had to motivate the fellow Indians and convince them to work together as a team in order to achieve their goal of being accepted instead of being seen as some of the lower level natives . Gandhi’s first major achievement as a leader came in 1918, with the Champaran agitation and Kheda Satyagraha. Supressed by the miltials of the landlords, the Indians were given, measly compensation leaving them in extreme poverty and devastating famine. Being the strong leader that Gandhi was, he couldn’t sit there and watch his country go down hill, he had to do something about it.He established an ashram, organizing scores of his veteran supporters and fresh volunteers form the region. He organized a detailed study and surveyed the villages accounting for the terrible counts of suffering, he began leading the clean-up of the villages, building brand new schools and hospitals helping those with alcoholism and poor health problems. All this was appreciated leadership towards his country, but his real main impact was when he was arrested on the charge of creating unrest and was ordered to leave the establishment. thousands of people protested outside the jail, police stations and courts demanding his release, which the court reluctantly granted†. It was during this time, that Gandhi was addressed by the people as Bapu (father) and Mahatma ( Great soul). After this Gandhi’s fame spread across the whole of the nation. Gandhi employed non-cooperation, non-violence and peaceful resistance as his â€Å"weapons† in the struggle against the British. During this time the civilians by British Troops caused deep trauma to the nation, leading to increased public anger and acts of violence. After this Gandhi’s mind ocused upon â€Å" obtaining complete self-government and control of the Indian government institutions, maturing soon into Swaraj or complete individual, spiritual, political independence†. With Gandhi as their leader, how could India not participate and be motivated? Gandhi was such a committed and heartful leader. If his goals were knocked down or failed he would find a way to start again or keep fighting. He always found a cause to help bring it back towards non violence, poverty and getting Indian’s accepted. All these battles were the obsticles and pathways to Gandhi’s leadership.As well as the many other steps he took until his final role of the pre-eminent political and spiritual leader of the Indian communities. He was also involved in the Salt march, World War II and Quit India and Freedom Of India. These last three acts were the peak of his leadership and help the recognition of the Indians to realise what a great leader he was for their country. In the results of his efforts and achievements throughout this stage of his life Gandhi was able to achieve: at the end of the war, the British gave clear indications that power would be transferred to the Indians hands.And the Government rescinded its policy and made the payment to Pakistan, Hindu, Muslim and Sikh community leaders and assured him that they would announce no violence and call for peace. Sadly Ganhi’ s life came to an end on January 30, 1948. He was walking towards his evening prayer meeting in front of a congregation of people when he was appoached by a Hindu named Nathuram Godse. Gandhi put his hands together in a traditional gesutre of greeting but this was when in violence Godse shot three bullets into Gandhi’s chest.There was a message after his death that went out to all the Indians about what a great leader he was and how inspirational he was to all them. Although our worldwide beloved Gandhi may be gone now, he will most definetly not be forgotten for what he did. He was an amazing cultural leader who believed very strongly in his country. He was recognised for his very different leadership styles and as a result he is officially honoured in India as a father of their nation. His birthday was on October 2, in commemoration there is a national holiday held and a worldwide International Day Of Non- Violence.

Psychological Perspectives for Health and Social Care Essay

The influence of individuals The key principals of the learning theory is when a child sees certain displays or acts of behaviour, that they are more likely to copy it. He argued that we learn through a process of imitating role models, but that we also imitate the actions that are seen that could be a possible interest. (Bandura, 1961) conducted a study to investigate if social behaviours such as aggression can be acquired by imitation. Bandura tested 36 boys and girls from the Stanford University Nursery School with children between 3 to 6 years old. The role models were one male adult and one female adult. Bandura then arranged for 24 of the boys and girls to watch a male or female model behaving aggressively towards a toy known as the bobo doll. The adults began to attack the doll in a distinctive manner, throwing the doll in the air and shouting. The researchers pre- tested the children for how aggressive they were by observing the children in the nursery and judged their aggressive behaviour on four five p oint rating scales. It was then possible for the children in the groups to be matched so that they had similar levels of aggression within their everyday behaviour. The children were then tested individually through three stages, which consists of modelling, which is studied as observational learning, as one needs to be paying attention, being able to store information effectively, and reproduction, which involves performing he behaviour that has been observed. Further practise of this skill will then lead to improvement and skill advancement. In stage two (Aggression Arousal) the child is then subjected to ‘mild aggression arousal’, which is when the child is taken to a room with relatively attractive toys. As soon as the child starts to play with the toys the experimenter tells the child that these were the experimenter’s very best toys and she had decided to reserve them for the other children. The final key stage is being tested for delayed imitation, which consisted of taking the children into a room with a number of aggressive toys consisting of mallets, tether balls, dart guns, and the Bobo Doll. The room also includes several non – aggressive toys, including crayons, paper, dolls, plastic animals and trucks. The children were then allowed to play in this room for  a period of 20 minutes while raters observed each child’s behaviour from behind a one way mirror and judged each child’s levels of aggression. This is the process of testing the individual on how much information has been previously retained, and how they transfer this information. The findings from this and similar studies have been used in the argument that media violence might be contributing in some degree to violence in society. The obvious criticism of this argument is that there are many other factors influencing whether or not we are likely to imitate screen violence. One of the major factors also is perhaps the level of aggression we already have, which might have been learned, in our family relationships or elsewhere. Social Learning Theory has also been used to explain the so-called ‘cycle of violence’, or more technically ‘the inter-generational transmission of aggression’. The basic idea is that if one has been the victim of (physical) abuse as a child, you are more likely to be an abusing parent than if you haven’t. It also increases the chances that you will be a wife – or a husband – â€Å"batterer†. It is also important to note that such early experiences make it more probable that people will become more aggressive but it is never certain, or inevitable. In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura’s social learning theory has had important implication in the field of education. Today, both teachers and parents recognize the importance of modelling appropriate behaviours. Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and building self-efficacy are also rooted in social learning theory. The statement â€Å"Children who witness domestic violence are at increased risk of having abusive relationships as adults, researchers have found.† (BBC,2003) is based on the process of modeling, as the children who are susceptible to violence and abuse are more likely to take in what has been done and copy the behaviour. I personally think that Health and Social Care Services could not be able to target this on-going problem, because I feel that child abuse and domestic violence can still happen behind closed doors, when not reported, or when no tell-tale signs are shown. I feel that the Social Services could target this  problem more accurately by advertising it more, and spreading the word that it is okay to speak out. Charities such as NSPCC and NCDV help those who are being abused, or witnessing abuse. Other projects such as enlisting in more guest speakers to speak to children in schools about abuse or domestic violence, and how it can affect individuals around them. I think there should also be more counsellors enlisted in schools, to assist and assure pupils or children who are being abused that they have someone to speak to about their problems. Counselling sessions should also made widely available for groups of women who are experiencing domestic abuse, to come forward and know that they are not alone, because they do not deserve to suffer in silence. More family inspections should be carried out, as these can give away vital signs of abuse, so it is often critical that the services carry out these checks. The Social can also target this problem by urging schools or teachers who know of any child who is being abused to come forward. Doing all of the above will significantly help the increasing levels of children who are witnesses of domestic violence, and hopefully create a slightly safer environment for victims or witnesses and decrease the amount of domestic violence which occurs in the home. Campaigns The first campaign I am going to be analysing is the â€Å"Stop Knife Crime† campaign, launched in 2008, which was endorsed by David Beckham, Rio Ferdinand and David James, who are all football greats, and role models to many who are interested in the sports or football sector. This particular promotion has used these role models by photographing them holding up signs, which endorse the campaign’s slogan, â€Å"Stop Knife Crime, it doesn’t have to happen†. Also, the use of Beckham and Rio Ferdinand having encountered a knife crime experience, further adds to them being role models, as they can relate and understand the dangers of this topic more, and broadcast their understanding to the public. There was a 10% decrease in knife crime rates in London after this campaign. Funding was also being contributed to pay for 85 more portable search arches and 566 church wands to allow more operations to take place. The second campaign I am going to be analysing is a Weight Watchers campaign, endorsed by Jenifer Hudson, who managed to lose more than 80 pounds, going from a size 16/18 to a size 8. This particular promotion has used Jennifer as a role model because she is a successful singer, and she can relate and understand the situations that those who are trying to lose weight are going through. The campaign have further endorsed this by photographing her in pretty, glamorous outfits with slogans such as â€Å"I believe in WeightWatchers† and â€Å"I lost with WeightWatchers and I feel stronger than ever†, which would make women want to be or look just like her. WeightWatchers were successful with their promotion using Jenifer Hudson, as they had an increase in memberships in 2013. Application of the psychodynamic perspective The key contributors to this psychodynamic approach are Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson and Carl Rogers. The psychodynamic approach includes all the theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly unconscious, and between the different structures of the personality. Anxiety is a disorder, and is according to (nhs.co.uk) â€Å" A feeling of unease, fear, or worry, that can be mild or severe†. Anxiety is something that everyone can also experience from time to time, without being given a diagnosis of it. Most people can relate to feeling tense and uncertain, and worrying about for example, going for a job interview. One may be worried about feeling uncomfortable, appearing foolish, or in how successful they will be. In turn, these worries can affect one’s sleep, appetite and ability to concentrate. Someone may experience anxiety for no reason because maternal conflicts can make a person feel anxious. In Freud’s view, anxiety arises when the ego cannot adequately balance the demands of the id and the superego, and the id begins to demand gratification of it’s impulses, and the superego demands maintenance of it’s moral standards. Some of the ways one can use to control their anxiety vary, as methods such as writing down any worries or concerns one might have, on a laptop, on a phone, or on paper. Also, by beginning to accept uncertainty could help one’s understanding that life’s problems do not require immediate solutions. By also doing things such as practising relaxation techniques, adapting healthy eating habits, reducing alcohol and nicotine intake, exercising regularly and getting enough sleep, could also help control anxiety. Application of the Humanist Perspective They key contributors to the Humanist Perspective were Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. The key concepts to this psychological approach are that humanistic psychologists study human behaviour, not only through the eyes of the observer, but also through the eyes of the person doing the behaving. The model of counselling developed by Carl Rogers was based on the psychological environment described as being one where a person felt free from threat, both physically and psychologically. This environment could be achieved when being in a relationship with a person who could have been deeply empathetic, accepting, and genuine. Empathy is defined by (google.com) as â€Å"The ability to understand and share the feelings of another†. An example that I have picked up on, or felt when someone has been empathetic towards me, is when I ask my best friends for my advice on a situation, and they are very understanding and listen to what I am telling them, by showing me actions of empathy, such as for example, nodding, saying â€Å"yeah† and â€Å"mm hmm†, which are general empathetic indicators. Active listening is not just about taking information in and processing it, but it is also our physical demeanour and body language. Egan (1986) devised five key components, which contribute to active listening, which goes back to the â€Å"SOLER† process. By inputting SOLER into active listening, an approach can be adapted with friends, family, or even colleagues The SOLER process can be interpreted to active listening in the following steps: S – Sit straight (this is important in conveying the message that ‘I am here with you’) O – Open posture (indicating openness to listening to anything that the speaker chooses to share) L – Lean forward (indicating an interest in the speaker’s words) E – Eye contact (another way of expressing interest and reassurance) R – Relax (a relaxed posture puts the speaker at ease). Applications of the Cognitive Perspective The key contributors to this particular theory were Ulric Neisser, Jean Piaget and Edward.C Tolman. The key concepts within this approach is that this perspective applies a nomothetic approach, which is an approach to research that seeks to establish broad generalizations or laws that apply to large groups of individuals to discover human cognitive processes, but has also adopted idiographic techniques through using case studies. Typically, cognitive theorists use the laboratory experiment to study behaviour. This is because the cognitive approach is a scientific approach. CBT is a form of talking theory that combines cognitive therapy and behaviour therapy. It focuses on how one thinks about the things going on in their life – their thoughts, images, beliefs and attitudes, or cognitive processes, and how this impacts the way one will behave and deal with one’s emotional problems. It then looks at how one can then change the way they behave and deal with emotional problems. It then looks at how one can change any negative patterns of thinking or behaviour that may be causing difficulties. In turn, this can also change the way one feels. CBT can help one understand that this is what is going on and can help to step outside of automatic negative thoughts. By continuing to think and behave negatively, one will not have the chance to find out that their thinking and prediction may actually be wrong. Instead, the way one thinks  and acts can lead oneself to be more convinced that what they are thinking is true, which therefore breaks the cognitive triad. By using the CBT method, one will learn to recognise how they think, behave and feel, and also encouraged to check out other ways of thinking and behaving that may be more useful. A PTSD, better known as post-traumatic stress disorder, is an anxiety disorder caused by very stressful, frightening or distressing events, such as serious road accidents, violent personal assaults, prolonged sexual abuse, witnessing violent deaths, military combat, being held hostage, terrorist attacks, or natural disasters. Some of the symptoms associated with a PTSD will often relive the traumatic event that they went through, through nightmares and flashbacks, and may experience feelings of isolation, irritability and guilt. They may also have problems sleeping, such as insomnia, and find may find concentrating difficult. These symptoms are often quite severe and persistent enough to have a significant impact on one’s day to day life. CBT can be applied to treat PSD by using one of the various, but most preferred method, which is known as deep- diagraphamatic breathing, which is taught to patients as a quick method to calm the patient prior to and during real life exposure to the patient’s most – feared situation, for example, like starting to drive again after a lengthy period of avoidance, which could be brought on my their PTSD. Application of the Biological Perspective The key ideas or concept within the biological approach consist of three main components, which are the Physiology – which is how the nervous system and hormones work, how the brain functions, and how changes in structure or function can affect behaviour. Then there is the investigation of inheritance, which is what an organism inherits from its parents, better known as genetics, and finally, there is the comparative method, which involves studying different species of animal and studying and transferring these ideas to the analysis of human behaviour The biological approach was effective when looking at the study of children because all development within children tends to take place according to a biological plan, and by studying the physiological aspects of a child’s brain and how it works and progresses, and their inheritance, by studying them and their parents to see what has been inherited and link this to their developmental progress. Sources Used: Bandura, A., Ross, D. & Ross, S.A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-82. http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder/pages/introduction.aspx http://www.simplypsychology.org/bobo-doll.html http://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html http://www.holah.karoo.net/bandurastudy.html http://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/drugs-and-treatments/cognitive-behaviour-therapy/#.UthsQmTV9es http://www.children.gov.on.ca/htdocs/English/topics/youthandthelaw/roots/volume5/chapter08_social_learning.aspx http://www.helpguide.org/mental/anxiety_types_symptoms_treatment.htm http://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/f/behaviorism.htm http://www.simplypsychology.org/Systematic-Desensitisation.html http://www.simplypsychology.org/psychodynamic.html http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/anxiety/Pages/Introduction.aspx http://www.sparknotes.com/psychology/psych101/personality/section2.rhtml http://www.bapca.org.uk/about/what-is-it.html http://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2011/08/25/active-listening-through-body-language/ http://www.simplypsychology.org/humanistic.html http://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive.html http://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/counselloradvice36.html http://www.simplypsychology.org/biological-psychology.html

Rowe vs Wade

Roe vs. Wade: â€Å"The Court today is correct in holding that the right asserted by Jane Roe is embraced within the personal liberty protected by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. It is evident that the Texas abortion statute infringes that right directly. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine a more complete abridgment of a constitutional freedom than that worked by the inflexible criminal statute now in force in Texas. The question then becomes whether the state interests advanced to justify this abridgment can survive the ‘particularly careful scrutiny' that the Fourteenth Amendment here requires.The asserted state interests are protection of the health and safety of the pregnant woman, and protection of the potential future human life within her. But such legislation is not before us, and I think the Court today has thoroughly demonstrated that these state interests cannot constitutionally support the broad abridgment of personal liberty worked by the exist ing Texas law. Accordingly, I join the Court's opinion holding that that law is invalid under the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment† (Craig and O'Brien 17).On January 22nd, 1973 Justice Harry Blackmun gave the decision of the Supreme Court in regards to the Roe vs. Wade case. A single pregnant woman, â€Å"Jane Roe,† had filed a class action lawsuit challenging the constitutionality of the Texas criminal laws regarding abortion, which stated having or attempting an abortion except on medical advice for the reason of saving the mother's life. Norma McCorvey, the plaintiff's legal name, was young and recently divorced at the time, searching for a way to resolve her unplanned pregnancy. â€Å"No legitimate doctor in Texas would touch me,† stated McCorvey. There I was – pregnant, unmarried, unemployed, alone and stuck† (Craig and O'Brien 5). The plaintiff's argument was that prohibiting abortion at any time before the actual birth of the chi ld violated a woman's constitutional right to privacy. The Supreme Court eventually agreed with Mrs. McCorvey, finding it justifiable that abortion under the fourteenth amendment was legal. A person's right to privacy had to now extend to the extent of choosing to have an abortion. Although the Court did not discuss the issue of when life actually begins, abortion became legal under this landmark Supreme Court decision.The debate over whether abortion should be legal had taken place in America for several decades, and the final decision rendered by Roe vs. Wade resonated through all of America, influencing society even to this date. Until inside the last half of the nineteenth century, when it was criminalized on a state by state basis across America, abortion was legal before approximately the fourth month of pregnancy. In early colonial medical guides there were recipes for instigating abortions with plants and herbs that could be grown in one's garden or easily procured in the wo ods.By the middle of the eighteenth century, commercial items were widely available that served the same purpose. Unfortunately, these drugs happened to be often fatal. The first statutes regulating acquiring an abortion, passed in the 1820s and 1830s, were actually laws for poison control: selling of commercial abortion agents was outlawed, but abortion itself was not. Despite these newly appointed laws, the business of abortion was booming by the 1840's, this included the sale of illegal drugs, which were advertised very widely in the popular press.However, this trend would change. Following the 1840's, abortion was under attack, and a string of anti-abortion laws would be put in place until the twentieth century. The pushing force behind this criminalization of abortion was doctors and the American Medical Association. The AMA was founded in 1847, and the elimination of abortion was one of its top priorities. To the growing movement, â€Å"abortion was both an immoral act and a medically dangerous one, given the incompetence of many of the practitioners then† (Joffe 28). However, the opposition went beyond these factors.To many people during the later years of the nineteenth century, abortion represented a threat to the traditional role of a woman in society and the authority of males. Abortion was a symbol of unrestrained female sexuality, expressing self-centered and self-indulgent qualities. The AMA's Committee on Criminal Abortion portrayed this view blatantly in 1871. â€Å"She yields to the pleasures – but shrinks from the pains and responsibilities of maternity; and, destitute of all delicacy and refinement, resigns herself, body and soul, into the hands of unscrupulous and wicked men† (Joffe 9). As the twentieth century arrived, over forty states had completely outlawed abortion unless the mother's life was in direct danger, and many others had put strict regulations in place. However in spite of these emerging laws, people stil l acquired abortions illegally for decades until the Roe vs. Wade decision. Frederick Taussig performed a study in 1936 which showed an estimated half million illegal abortions. In 1953, ninety percent of all premarital pregnancies ended in illegal abortions, and twenty percent of married couples had abortions performed.Illegal abortions climbed in numbers to over a million a year until Roe vs. Wade. Although the law dictated the morality of having an abortion, it was still a considerable part of society. The Roe vs. Wade decision was first argued in December 1971, after being before the Supreme Court for over a year. Although this decision would be later analyzed and debated over, little attention was brought up in regard to the case at the time. Chief Justice Burger opened the Court's oral arguments, and each was given only thirty minutes to present their case and answer questions.Sarah Weddington, who was the main lawyer defending Norma McCorvey argued that abortion needed to be legalized farther than the case in which a woman's life is in danger. The physiological and psychological factors could also warrant an abortion. However, seeing as how the Supreme Court has no jurisdiction over public policies, Weddington decided to argue that current abortion laws were in violation of the fourteenth amendment. The fourteenth amendment guarantees the right to liberty without due process of law, and the decision made this right extend to a woman's right to choose to be pregnant.During her closing argument, Weddington stated if â€Å"liberty is meaningful†¦ that liberty to these women would mean liberty from being forced to continue the unwanted pregnancy† (Craig and O'Brien 17). Jay Floyd, the assistant attorney general of Texas, then presented his case arguing against the legalization of abortion. Weddington had argued that many women had no other choice but to have an abortion because of their social and economic status. However, Floyd contended that d espite external factors, every person has free autonomy. Now I think she makes her choice prior to the time she becomes pregnant. That is the time of her choice. It's like, more or less, the first three or four years of our life we don't remember anything. But once a child is born, a woman no longer has a choice, and I think pregnancy then determines that choice† (Craig and O'Brien 17). Thus, Floyd argued, the fourteenth amendment had not been violated since pregnancy was a result of free will, and liberty was not denied. If pregnancy was a conscious choice on the woman's part, then abortion was not warranted.Another crucial chapter of the Roe vs. Wade trial was the debate of when a fetus is given constitutional rights. In response to Texas' harsh abortion restrictions, Floyd explained that Texas â€Å"recognized the humanness of the embryo, or the fetus† and had†a compelling interest because of the protection of fetal life† (Craig and O'Brien 17). However, there were many flaws with this statement in the court. First, the topic at hand was not the constitutional rights of embryos, but whether abortion was in violation of a person's right to liberty.Second, there had been no state law or court decision which had equated abortion with murder. Thus, Floyd's argument amounted to nothing more than personal opinion, with no relativity to the case. The Court needed to ensure the constitutional rights of the woman before protecting the â€Å"rights† of the unborn fetus. The fourteenth amendment as it is stated applies only â€Å"to all persons born or naturalized in the United States,† and if the Court granted the fourteenth amendment to unborn children, it would be an extreme case of judicial activism (Craig and O'Brien 20).After two years of listening to both sides, the Supreme Court finally came to a decision. The right to privacy and liberty was broad enough to include a woman's choice for abortion. The fourteenth amendment granted personal liberty, which includes a woman's body and unborn fetus. Although the Court determined the legality of abortion, they left the responsibility of how to implement it to the states themselves. Like Brown vs. The Board of Education of Topeka, a general decision on constitutionality needed to be left to local governments to be implemented. Where certain ‘fundamental rights' are involved, the Court has held that regulation limiting these rights may be justified only by a ‘compelling state interest,' and that legislative enactments must be narrowly drawn to express only the legitimate state interests at stake† (Craig and O'Brien 27). Although the court did not provide any precise methods of how to implement, it did set vague guidelines regarding the developmental stage of the fetus.A mother had the choice to abort the pregnancy in the first trimester, but limitations were put in place on abortion where it is allowed in the second and third trimesters if the right to liberty and privacy of the mother was still preserved. The immediate reactions to the Roe vs. Wade decision were heated and extreme, as abortion is still an extremely controversial topic. The president of Planned Parenthood hailed the decision as â€Å"a wise and courageous stroke for the right of privacy, and for the protection of a woman's physical and emotional health† (Craig and O'Brien 32).However, there were just as many people in agreement with the decision as its opposition. Cardinal Terence Cooke came after the Justices, claiming that â€Å"whatever their legal rationale, seven men have made a tragic utilitarian judgment regarding who shall live and who shall die† (Craig and O'Brien 32). Roe vs. Wade launched the abortion issue to the national level, making it a source of political and social arguments in the years to follow. On the tenth anniversary of the decision, The Washington Post discussed its effects on society. â€Å"[Roe vs.Wade] has dr astically changed the Court's image, fostered wholesale attack on ‘judicial activism' and mobilized thousands of supporters and opponents of legalized abortion in a debate that has reshaped the political terrain in many states and, at times, has virtually halted the work of Congress. Few court decisions have had a more immediate impact on such a personal aspect of American life† (Craig and O'Brien 35). The Roe vs. Wade decision has affected all parts of society, from the role of the Supreme Court to the level of humanness of an unborn fetus.Many scholars regard this case as the â€Å"Dred Scott† of the twentieth century. The decision ignited a national debate on judicial activism, and the part the Supreme Court plays on public policy. No other case similar to Roe vs. Wade has had such an extreme impact on public law. Furthermore, the case has drawn an imaginary line, diving the whole country into the pro-life or pro-choice category. Almost immediately following th e decision, a great deal of pro-life and pro-choice groups were created, and abortion has remained a prominent political, social, and moral issue.No other subject has resonated importance in American politics. Finally, the Roe vs. Wade outcome is considered a symbol of the changing society during the 1970's. In the past, abortion was highly restricted and frowned upon, mimicking the conservative society. However, as the 1970's marked a rise in liberalism and the need for individual freedoms, the Roe vs. Wade decision to make abortion legal mirrored this willingness to embrace a person's autonomy. Roe vs. Wade marked an unforgettable change in government, politics, and society.Works Cited Craig, Barbara Hinkson and David M. O'Brien. Abortion and American Politics. Chatham, New Jersey: Chatham House Publishers, 1993. Hickok, Eugene W. Justice vs. Law: Courts and Politics in American Society. New York: Free Press/Macmillan, 1993. Joffe, Carole. Doctors of Conscience: The Struggle to Pr ovide Abortion Before and After Roe v. Wade. Boston: Beacon Press, 1995. Olasky, Marvin. Abortion Rites: A Social History of Abortion in America. Washington DC: Regnery Publishing, 1992. Rubin, Eva R. Abortion, Politics, and the Courts: Roe v. Wade and its Aftermath. New York: Greenwood Press, 1987.

Polish worker Andrezej Freitag been killed in construction site Essay

Polish worker Andrezej Freitag been killed in construction site - Essay Example His employer, Discovery Homes Limited was fined 5,000 pounds after being found guilty of breaching the Health and Safety at Work Act. The director of the company was also fined 4,000 pounds after being found guilty of going against section 37(1) of the act. It was concluded that Freitag’s death could have been avoided had his employer done enough about the safety hazards that were present at the construction site. An investigation showed that Freitag died as a result of a faulty protection barrier that should not have been used for the type of work he was doing (HSE News Release, 2009). The case above is just one of many in which the safety and health of employees have been compromised leading to irreparable damages and loss of lives. In the case above, the compny and the manager in charge of the construction work were fined for neglecting the safety and health needs of their employees. They failed to see to it that there was ample protection against unnecessary injuries to em ployees and yet they are required by aw to oversee their employees overall health and safety while they are at work. Freitag’s death would probably have been avoided had the company and its director ensured that appropriate protection on building heights was in place. Some of the important aspects of UK Health and Safety Legislations are discussed below. The Health and Safety at Work, etc, Act, 1974 This legislation forms the basis of health and safety laws in the UK and it covers all employees as well as any individual affected by certain work activities. Section 2 of the legislation requires all employers to ensure that the health and safety of employees is well taken care of by employers. The same section also stipulates that employers should consult with safety representatives in trade unions on health and safety issues affecting the organization. Section 3 of the legislation stipulates that all employers should make sure that non-employees who may be affected by the orga nization’s work activities are not exposed in any way to health and safety hazards. Section 7 deals with the responsibilities of the employee in ensuring that he is safe at all times while he is working (HSE, 1999). Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations, 1999 The main requirement of this legislation is for employers to carry out risk assessments as a way of reducing or eliminating health and safety hazards. This piece of legislation also requires employers to set up procedures that mitigate employees’ health and safety at the workplace. This is the legislation that requires all employers to provide enough clear information about the health and safety policies of the organization to employees (Lewis and Sergeant, 2004). Workplace Regulations 1992 This law deals with any physical conditions that might affect employees’ health and safety at the workplace. According to these regulations, employees must meet certain minimum standards in relation to: lig hting, ventilation, first aid, buildings and equipment maintenance, temperature, toilet and rest facilities (HSE, 1999). Health and Safety Regulations 1992 These regulations require employers to carry out assessments of their employees’ who normally use display screen equipment. The employers are

Ray Ban Sunglasses Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ray Ban Sunglasses - Essay Example It is important to bring to your notice that these designer wear prescription glasses help improve not only your vision but also ameliorate the eye strains. This is the forte of this brand as they offer Glass or polycarbonate lenses offer 100% UV protection. Ray Ban glasses always attract the customers without a second thought. Their new strategic media campaign for Spring/Summer 2007 "NEVER HIDE," is full of thought provoking innovativeness which happens to be the brand's benchmark. In its every form, the RAY-BAN campaign portrays regular guys and girls living their day to day lives with authenticity, with the courage to express themselves and their unique individuality, because the most fashionable thing to be is your self. Recently the company launched its campaign in New York and briefed its customers through a press release and said: "Ray-Ban has a rich history and an iconic personality that is authentic, real, bold and stylish. Ray-Ban has always created trends not followed them: authenticity and legacy mean something while flash and sparkle will come and go. But Ray-Ban is forever."(1) It speaks of timeless nostalgia. The elegance and subtlety of its design makes it an all time collector's item. For instance: the heavy metal Aviator series are unisex and look well proportioned on any face. Likewise the brand does not pose off cheap ritzy glasses that become dated after a while. The beauty of possessing a Ray Ban is the endorsement of its simplicity in design. Real trendsetters, real opinion leaders, real individuals believe the most fashionable thing you can be is yourself; to be authentic, real, bold and stylish. So to reclaim its rightful place as the legitimate leader of sunglasses, Ray-Ban has to only speak and act like their maverick selves. No wonder why all stylish models and celebrities put them because these glasses epitomize class and breed. Ray-Ban has adorned thousands of famous faces in international films, helping create the myth that it is today. To further explicate the proposition of purchasing only and only Ray Ban can be evaluated and gauged through the following review by one of its customers: "They are the ones to rock n roll. They speak of the 70s-80s style. They are perfect for my face. I think it looks good on anyone. There is a big difference buying sunglasses in streets. You could feel the quality and comfort because they are 100% authentic ray-bans, made in Italy. So, therefore I recommend for the people to get it if you could handle this hot item!"(2) This clearly proves that these designer wear glasses are every style conscious person's dream wear and imply the rich aesthetic sense of its wearer as well. Their supreme quality construction, sophisticated designs, and premier features like polarized lenses and durable frames make them ideal for activities ranging from heavy duty sports to driving. Appearing in hundreds of inspiring Hollywood films and beloved by fashion fans worldwide, the name "Ray-Ban" has become an icon in eyewear. Therefore, the Company's much coveted motto endorses its high claims and makes it the world's undisputed top notch designer wear brand-making it a worthwhile purchase. "Never pretend. Never be afraid. Never give up. Never Hide."

Unilateral and bilateral contracts Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Unilateral and bilateral contracts - Article Example Unilateral and bilateral contracts The distinction between bilateral and unilateral contracts has been considered a fundamental principle of contract law and essential to the order of the contractual system. The focus of this analysis is to critically evaluate the theoretical legal dichotomy between unilateral and bilateral contracts and consider the practical similarities between the two. If we firstly consider unilateral contracts, the concept of a unilateral contract is illustrated by reference to a classic contract law case of Carlil v Carbolic Smoke Ball Limited4. In this case, the defendant was the proprietor of a medical substance and placed and advert in the Pall Mall Gazette promising to pay $100 to anyone who used the carbolic smoke ball for two weeks and who for a limited time after contracted the flu virus. Mrs Carlil took the substance and contracted the flu virus and sued for the $100. Mrs Carlil's claim succeeded and on appeal, Carbolic Smoke Ball Limited argued that the advert did not constitute an offer but was rather an invitation to treat. The Court of Appeal rejected this argument and held that there was a legally enforceable contract. The advertisement constituted an offer to the whole world and was capable of amounting to an offer of a unilateral contract without the requirement for acceptance. Moreover, this decision was the first case to highlight the requirement of intention to create legal relations. The Carlil decision had far reaching implications for contract law, with some commentators arguing that there is no difference between an â€Å"invitation to treat† and a contractual â€Å"offer†."invitation to treat" and a contractual "offer"5. The law of contract stipulates three fundamental requirements for the formation of a legally enforceable contract; namely; offer, acceptance and consideration (it is important to note that contracting parties must have legal capacity to enter into a contract). Lord Wilberforce presiding in the case of New Zealand Shipping Co Limited v A M Satterhwaite, The Eurymedon6 asserted the rule for contract formation thus: "English law having committed itself to a rather technical'' doctrine of contract, in application takes a practical approach''. Into the market slots of offer, acceptance and consideration7. An "offer" in the context of contract law has been described as "an expression of willingness to contract on certain terms, made with the intention that it shall become binding as soon as it is accepted by the person to whom it is addressed, the "offeree.8" The "expression9" may take different forms and the intention element is an objective consideration and the case of Smith v Hughes 10emphasised the relevant consideration as being a focus on how a reasonable person would view the situation. Furthermore, the law distinguishes between an offer and an invitation to treat, which is not an offer but an indication of willingness to negotiate a contract11. For example, in the case of Gibson v Manchester City Council12, the words "may be prepared to sell" constituted an invitation to treat and not a distinct offer. Moreover, an invitation to treat is an action inviting others to make an offer. Whereas an offer is itself binding, accepting an invitation to treat is making an offer13. This is particularly evident in the construction industry where tender

Mixed Communities in Planning Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Mixed Communities in Planning - Coursework Example When planning for a mixed community, it is always important to note that whatever plans are made must be with consideration to the various preferences and financial ability status in the society. In a society that is exclusively for rich and financially capable people, financially incapable people will find it hard settling in because prices of housing will be unfavorable to them. The same applies to a society whichexclusively target poor people. In such an environment the rich and affluent will never get the type of dwellings and neighborhoods that they would prefer living in. Other factors such as age, race, and nature of dwelling usage can also be other factors that might be limiting to communal inclusion. Other considerations include difference in cultures, age, health state, and lifestyles. This is the only way through which mixed communities can be attained. A perfect mixed society is one which can be able to accommodate all people regardless of their ages. Many cities have over the past years registered an increase in the population of the elderly. It is important for them to be able to find a way of accommodating them. In Michigan continuing care retirement communities have proved to be an effective ways of keeping elderly people within the society. These are communities that offer a continuum of care ranging from residential care, assisted living, and skilled nursing services on a single campus. Continuing care retirement communities allow people to live in the same retirement community because they avail all the amenities that associate to retirement living. According to statistics more about 18% of elderly people within Michigan are taken care of by continuing care retirement communities. Mixed communities could lead to mixed services which could be good in some cases or groups such as the immigrants who have always found it hard to access social facilities and services because they are never considered to be a

Critical analysis of Qualitative paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Critical analysis of Qualitative paper - Essay Example Topics and introductions of the articles In Both articles, titles are good title particularly because they are both informatory and refer to the key phenomenon of the study. However, Dietrich et al’s title is goes further to expounds on the key variables.Though they have failed to include the study population,both researches the problems of the research are stated unequivocally and build coherent and credible arguments which have significance for nursing profession.Both Olrich et al (2012) and Deitrick et al (2012) studies have also failed to stipulate the research questions or a hypothesis of the studies and this is also considered as a flaw in the studies. Methods and designs of the studies There is debate regarding whether the standards used for quantitative studies should be used for qualitative research has existed for a long time and will probably continue with the trend (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). The research approach used in the qualitative was the ethnography approac h, which means that there was a conscious effort by the researchers in examining and exploring a cultural phenomenon (Bernardo, 2007). The ethnographic approach was used to outline the major challenges faced by nurses in two inpatient units in the implementation of hourly rounding. On the part of thequantitative evidences that were selected, they made use of the quasi-experimental approaches. In fact much of the quasi-experimental method has had elements of a real experimentation just that there is lack of the use of random assignment (Bravo, Earls and Johnson, 2011). To this end, a 506-bed teaching hospital was acquired where the effect of hourly round was determined on fall rates, call light usage and the general satisfaction of patients on the service they received from nurses. A big debate has existed about what should be incorporated as quality criteria in quantitative designs. For example, Ryan et al, (2001) stipulated that the degree to which the methods are satisfactory to p articipants ought to be also applied as a decisive factor for assessing the methodological eminence of quantitative studies This design’s flaw was that it did not take into account the patients’ attitudes feelings and perceptions which are very important in nursing but rather just went for the figures.However the execution of design was top notch thenumber of data collection points was appropriate.The design also curtailed biases and threats to the interior and exteriorsoundness of the study. As far as validity is concerned, there are two major aspects of measurement that the researchers could be looking at to ensure validity. These are internal and external validity. Generally internal validity on measurement tools can be achieved if researchers shall pay particular attention to selection bias and ensure that the tool is impartial in its selection. Again, history, differential attrition and regression towards the mean are all significant such that researchers must ens ure that they conform to stipulated standards of scoring. With external validity, attention must be paid to the population to ensure that there is a generalization between the study’s inferences and the general population used (Castledine, Grainger,

Pyschology-TV Character Evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Pyschology-TV Character Evaluation - Essay Example (IEP Freud, 2010) It was his insistence on understanding the human mind that allowed modern psychology to gain the abilities it has now. And while his approach may have been flawed in some areas, he made it possible to move forward in the field of psychology. Carl Jung is best known for being the founder of analytical psychology. Among his many accomplishments in the field of psychology are his developments of the concepts of extroverted and introverted personality and the collective unconscious. (Cowgil, 1997) A lingering result of his approach in popular culture is the use of the Jung and Briggs Myers typology test whish tested your personality type based on a series of questions. This approach is used today in many corporate entrance examinations to verify the person’s personality and abilities. Another interesting innovation was his theory regarding symbols and their use in defining and understanding individual human nature. The popular Rorschach Inkblot tests are a result of the influences of Carl Jung’s approach to symbolism in understanding the psychology of the individual. Carl Rogers is best known for his contributions to client-centered therapy using humanistic approaches.

What relationship can you draw between the ideas of the global village Essay

What relationship can you draw between the ideas of the global village and collective intelligence and how will this impact your professional work - Essay Example Thus, we no longer live in unconnected and detached spots but a ‘global village’. Furthermore, this participation makes what we call ‘collective intelligence’ possible, and that is what is discussed below and how it impacts our lives. What collective intelligence means is that the intelligence of individuals and groups can be pooled together and used in several powerful ways. The actual concept was propounded by Levy (1997) though it is a part of the spiritual concept of ‘collective consciousness’. It was envisioned that networked computers would be able to enhance the totality of human knowledge in a number of ways – by â€Å"facilitating interaction among people†¦[and] promoting [their] participation† (Brand, 2007), and allowing the construction of ‘super databases’. McLuhan (1964) and Boorstin (1978) suggested long ago that we would be living in a ‘boundless global village’ because they foresaw the potential of electronic communication and the evolution of computers and the Internet. The former saw the global village as extending â€Å"or nervous system in a global embrace, abolishing both space and time as far as our planet is concerned† (Symes, 1995). Building on from the earlier World Wide Web, it is evident that a new phase has been reached named as Web 2.0 To take advantage of or ‘harness’ this collective intelligence, many businesses for example have moved entirely onto the Internet and are applying its principles to achieve what they could only imagine before. Thus, another feature of Web 2.0 is the building of special applications that â€Å"harness network effects [to] get better the more people use them† (O’Reilly, 2006). One example of this is the online ‘Wiki’ encyclopedia whose information rests on user contributions (wikepedia.org) The ‘wiki principle’ in general is inviting for people to participate as it gives them power to make useful

Anheuser Busch SWOT Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Anheuser Busch SWOT Analysis - Essay Example The company was a pioneer in introducing pasteurization to keep the beer fresh and also was the first to use refrigerated cars for transport of beer. The company's early innovations also included a network of railside ice houses to preserve the beer. It was in 1981, that this small firm became Anheuser-Busch International and currently owns 12 breweries in the US and 20 breweries outside the US. The flagship brand of the company is Budweiser which is brewed in 10 countries and has a global market. Other brands include Bud Light, Michelob Honey Lager, Michelob, Busch, Busch Ice and Bare Knuckle Stout. The presence and the strength of the company as continued to grow and it was the largest brewer in the United States in the year 2007. (Leone, 1995) The company's goals are to extend its position as the leading brewer internationally. This is perceived would be achieved by increasing its share in the domestic beer market and also extends its presence internationally. It is tapping thirst y markets internationally by using two pronged strategies for growth. These two pronged strategies include expanding the Budweiser brand globally and simultaneously strengthening equity partnerships with other large brewers around the globe. Since the company produced two thirds of all beer in the US, it could easily be assumed that the local market was saturated with Anheuser-Busch products. It was evident that the linear growth model that the company has been following for the last so many years will have to be stretched beyond the boundaries of the United States if the company has to make its presence felt. Section II- Strengths and Weaknesses Strength no 1: Cost effectiveness The company has adopted its strategies to revolve around its key strengths and opportunities. Its biggest strength lies in its ability to produce cost effective products by capitalizing on product development expertise within the company. It also used its substantial capital for equity investments and acqui sitions. The tax laws and regulations caused it to change its prices to adjust for tax changes. The company is also not new to low cost packaging and production for new markets. It has a cost strategy for the economic segment and is an expert at using the value chain to assess the supply side of its production. Thus its two pronged or rather multiple pronged strategies were based on its core competencies. Equity investments include a $105 million investment to own 10% of Antarctica and to control 70% of Antarctica’s operations. It again involves the exchange of representatives on both the company's boards. This deal helps Anheuser-Busch garner a share from the huge Brazilian beer market which is growing at a rate of 15% annually. Besides the coalition and partnership, another move by Anheuser-Busch includes a licensing agreement for a new company. This will be a joint venture where Antarctica will brew Budweiser in Brazil. This joint venture is an example of production in the host country and will be 51% owned by Anheuser-Busch and 49% by Antarctica. This local production will maintain Budweiser quality standards and allow for more competitive pricing as importing costs and taxes will be eliminated. (Nelson, 2005) Here again, like in all global markets Anheuser-Busch capitalizes on its beer making excellence and combines it with the expertise and the reach of market leaders in the host countries. Normally a coalition results in the increased sales of products of both companies and a more competitive beer market which results in benefits for both suppliers and consumers. Strength no 2: Leading market Position Anheur Buscher also enjoys the leading market position in the industry. It kept its

Walden by Henry David Thoreau Essay Example for Free

Walden by Henry David Thoreau Essay No doubt, the great Henry David Thoreau was born in Concord, Massachusetts on July 12, 1817 and died there calmly on May 6, 1862. He was explained by Hawthorne as ugly as sin. He appreciated nature, and his steady worry was exploring the woods and ponds making full observations of plants and creatures. Henry led a remarkable life, never marrying, and marching to his own drummer, as he put it. From 1845 to 1847, he lived unaccompanied in a little cabin he built by Walden Pond near Concord. He explain this sole trial in natural living in Walden criticizing those who lead lives of quiet desperation by all the trappings of usual society. His personal self-government and simple manner was harsh to a number of people, and he gained very little credit throughout his lifetime. Henry David Thoreau was jailed for refusing to pay his poll-tax because he did not believe he should be part of a government which allowed the holding of slaves and invaded other countries (Mexico) with a standing army. An unknown person paid his poll-tax and he was released from jail. Thoreau would have preferred to remain jailed and had others join him in his refusal. If others had joined him, based on their consciences he believes this could have caused the minority to force the majority to do the right thing. I know this well, that if one thousand, if one hundred, if ten men whom I could name if ten honest men only yes, if one HONEST man ceasing to hold slaves withdrew from the copartner-ship, and be locked up in the county jail therefore, it would be the abolition of slavery in America (Thoreau, Disobedience 317). Summary of His Book Today a majority of high school students do not read books because it is considered boring, and with todays technology, you dont have to read, something else will do it for you. People who dont read often judge a book by its cover. It is not all books that are as dull as their readers. Thoreau said this quote because people often judge books without knowing about the book, in this case, the book would not be dull but the person saying it is will be. In the chapter Reading, Thoreau said, To read well, that is, to read true books in a true spirit, is a noble exercise, and one that will task the reader more than any exercise which the customs of the day esteem. It requires training such as the athletes underwent the steady intention almost of the whole life to this object. This quote is very important because Thoreau is saying that reading is not an easy task, but it also requires lots of practice and training just as athletes undergo. Throughout the chapter of Reading, Thoreau states how everyone should read books, and if we dont, we could end up being like pygmies and manikins. No wonder that Alexander carried the Iliad with him on his expeditions in a precious casket. (Thoreau, Walden) In the chapter Solitude, Thoreau explains how being by yourself is not at all a bad thing. But for the most part it is as solitary where I live as on the prairies. It is as much Asia or Africa as New England, I have, as it were, my own sun and moon and stars, and a little world all to myself. Thoreau didnt look at solitude as being something bad or a punishment, he looked at it as if it were a gift. When he said that he had his own little world all to himself, it made me think different about whenever I am alone. I used to think of solitude as something that was bad, but the way that Thoreau put it, I now felt better about being all by me. In the chapter Visitors, Thoreau talks about how having people around are just as good as being in solitude. I had three chairs in my house; one for solitude, two for friendship, three for society. When visitors came in larger and unexpected numbers there was but the third chair for them all, but they generally economized the room by standing up. I think that when Thoreau said that he wanted to keep things as simple as possible, he meant it. For example, he only had 3 chairs in his house, and to most people that would be crazy, but when you think about it, how many chairs do you actually need? Or how many rooms do you need? Thoreau also said that it was amazing how he could fit 25-30 people in his tiny house, and how that brought him and all of his visitors closer together. I could not but notice some of the peculiarities of my visitors. Girls and boys and young women generally seemed glad to be in the woods. They looked in the pond and at the flowers, and improved their time. (Samuel Taylor Coleridge) Walden by Henry David Thoreau is an important book for a high school student to read because it has important factors of life that may be needed now, or in you future. In this book, Thoreau explained many things, but I think the most important thing he explained were his chapters on Reading, Solitude, and Visitors. He explained the importance and necessity of reading, he showed how being alone is usually a good thing, and he also showed how great visitors can be. These are all reasons why I think high school students should read Walden. Conclusion Thoreau wrote a lot of stories, one counting Walden. This story clearly portrayed Thoreaus love for nature and life. Thoreau, in the primary part, defines what he sees as the main difficulty of his time. In the second part, Thoreau describes his own trial in living an easy life. Part three focuses on what is significant to him. In this case, Nature is most significant to him, believing nature of learn as a spiritual pursuit. The entire story of Walden is just a trial of a man in living well. Henry D. Thoreau also wrote Resistance which was about him refusing to pay a poll tax. He was in prison and imprisoned in agreement for one night in 1846 for default of his poll tax. This act of disobedience was a complaint against slavery and alongside the Mexican War, which Thoreau and other abolitionists regard as a means to get bigger the slave territory. Self-reliance and personal independence are hallmarks which are predominant in Walden. Thoreau went to the woods to get to the most basic facts of life and to appreciate and enjoy everything about these most basic facts. Thoreau viewed the woods in particular, and nature in general, as a teacher of life and living. Thoreau believed that the simpler his life became the greater his opportunity to appreciate life. Thoreau did not want to allow society to determine that which he knew as life. To live an existence based on the common experience of others would be as to neglect ones own experience. Individualism and an appreciation for nature and solitude do not necessarily mean living as a hermit. Thoreau believed that in order to truly appreciate life, to understand and experience life as ones own life, it is necessary to quiet the mind of all the surrounding trappings of society. Individualism, the importance of the individual, self-reliance, and personal independence is one of the leading characteristics of the era of Romanticism. Henry David Thoreau wrote about individualism and demonstrated his belief by the way he lived. Living at Walden Pond, standing up to his government, refusing to pay a poll-tax to a government with which he viewed as corrupt are examples of his fierce independence and individuality. Thoreau is a stellar example of what individuality can produce. A worthy goal is to make the effort to devote oneself to thought and work, to in fact nurture ones own individuality, rather than becoming lost in the mainstream of life. This will allow greater individuality and diversity to complement our current day society. References Samuel Taylor Coleridge, The Collected Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, gen. ed. Kathleen Coburn, 14 vols. to date (Princeton: Princeton UP, 1969) 6: 30. Thoreau, Walden, the Writings of Henry David Thoreau 199. All additional citations from Walden will come from this edition and be designated by a page number in parentheses.

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus In order to ensure that the outcome of the pregnancy is the best for mother and baby, a routine is undertaken which is embraced by the term Ante Natal care. Ante natal care is simply caring for the mothers before labour and delivery and also preparing the mothers fully for delivery because of safe motherhood. This can only be achieved by if mother is seen early preferably before the 10th week and at regular intervals thereafter. In this essay, I will be discussing one of the factors which are (GDM) gestational diabetes mellitus which affects the normal physiological pregnancy state. Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is defined as carbohydrate in tolerance resulting in hyperglycaemia of variable severity with its onset and first recognition during pregnancy. Insulin is an essential hormone required for glucose transfer into the muscle and adipose tissue cells. For women with diabetes mellitus, pregnancy can present some particular changes for both mother and the child. If the woman who is pregnant has diabetes, it can cause early and very large babies (Macrosomia). Management of pregnant mothers with diabetes needs very firm and accurate control even in advance of having pregnancy. There are question whether the condition is natural during pregnancy or not. Gestational diabetes is caused when the insulin receptors do not function properly, due to pregnancy related factors such as the presence of human placental lactogen that interfere with susceptive insulin receptors. Gestational diabetes affects 3-10% of pregnancies, depending on the population studied, so may be a natural occurrence (Littleton, 2005,). During a normal pregnancy, many physiological changes occur such as increased hormonal secretions that influence blood glucose levels, such as glucose – drain to the fetus, slowed emptying of the stomach, increased excretion of glucose by the kidneys and resistance of cells to insulin. Moving further, I as the ante-natal clinic nurse will first try to collect as much information as I can from the patient. During her 12th week of gestation, Mrs. B came for her ante natal case booking. She was already 3 months and this was her initial visit to the ante natal clinic. I booked Mrs. B by obtaining subjective data from her. I as the nurse, firstly I offered her seat so that she can sit in level with me. After that I took her personal history after greeting the client. She was feeling ease and welcomed. I communicated with her in English because she was able to understand and I also kept in mind that level of education might be low so I used simple interpretations of facts. Her first impression was very good because she was a Primip-gravida and she looked happy and relaxed. Her physical characteristics were good, because (posture) she was sitting comfortably and even she was working normally without any problem (gait). She looked health during her first visit to the clini c. After this observation during interview, I had taken her full personal history. Her full name is Mrs. B. She was born on 15th of April, 1989 at Labasa Hospital. Her age now is 24 years. Just because she is Fijian, I did not ask for her father’s name, nevertheless, she is married to a Fijian, 25 year old businessman. She is a primary school teacher. Her husband’s name is Mr. C and they reside in Namara, Labasa and both of them are Methodist. Both have attended tertiary institutions and are well educated. She gave her husband’s name and phone number for emergency purpose. Secondly, I obtained Mrs. B family history. Not much information was given by Mrs. B because her parent and grandparents were of Fijian origin and they lived in village. Her mother had diabetes only. Thirdly, I took the medical history of Mrs. B, according to her she is not having any medical problems and she was never admitted before for any illness. Mrs. B is only allergic to penicillin anti biotic. In her social history, it is interesting to know that this would be their first child in the family, so no case of negligence or overcrowding in the home. They both, husband and wife earn enough for their upcoming family. She is not a teenager and has a good age for first child bearing. She is physically, psychologically and financially strong to mother a child. They live in a concrete and iron roofing house and they reside in an industrial area. They both neither smoke nor consume alcohol or drugs. She did not have a surgical history. She did not have any abdominal, pelvic, cardiac surgeries or either injuries. I did not ask anything about her previous obstetric history because this was her first pregnancy. As a nurse, I asked her about any abortionsmiscarriage but Mrs. B said no because they used family planning devices before so she did not had any abortions and miscarriage. There was no gynaecological history for Mrs. B. Her menstrual history, she has menses which last f or 3 days- 4 days. She was fourteen years when she had had her first menses (menarche). Just because Mrs. B was 12 weeks pregnant, I did not ask her about on set of movement but calculated her expected date of delivery (EDD). Her last menses occurred on 17th of February until 20th of February. It is a four days regular flow according to Mrs. B. So her expected date of delivery would be seventeen plus seven and add 9 months from indicated date, so that will be on 24th day of November. After this assessment, I did the physical examination of Mrs. B. Firstly, I took Mrs. B height and it was 168cm, her weight was 62.5kg and to notice difference in her weight, it had to be taken on every visit. Mrs. B urine test was done for protein and glucose, mid stream specimen was taken and this was done in all the visits to get the results from laboratory. Her blood pressure was taken. Blood test was also done for emergencies and surgical procedures. As a nurse, we also checked for edema. This may not be seen during initial visit but as pregnancy progress it can be noticed. All this assessments and examinations were done by two nurses since I had to have a female nurse since I was interviewing a female client and received a lot of information about Mrs. B and her health. This also built a foundation of a trusting relationship. In addition to this, a goal of antenatal care is equally important because this acts as guidance in caring for the antenatal case holistically. Firstly, the aim that is to monitor the progress of pregnancy in order to support the maternal health and normal fetal development and to ensure that the mother reaches the end of pregnancy in a healthy state and delivers a healthy baby. Nurses and midwives are the best people to detect the problem early, diagnose it and treat the problem before progression of labour and delivery. More of our aims include identification of women at risk. As a nurse you must educate clients at high risk pregnancy on their medications, follow-up, nutrition and exercise, so that they can get a positive result. To assess levels of health by taking a detailed history and to after appropriate screening test. Ask to identify risk factors by talking accurate details of past and present obstetric, medical, family and personal history. Another aim is to provide a good opportunity for the women and her family to express and discuss any concerns they might have about the current pregnancy and previous pregnancy loss, labour, birth or pueperium.. Lastly, the most vital is the delivery of the healthy term infant without signs of distress or any abnormality. Furthermore, the nurse’s role independently in managing for the gestational diabetes mellitus women are broad and as follows. A nurse must carry out a proper procedure when dealing with a GDM mother so that she and the infant’s risk of complications are reduced. Firstly, a nurse must obtain baseline data from the patient. Secondly, I carried my nursing assessment on Mrs. B, I took her vital signs. This was very much important because an increase in blood pressure and weight may be a sign of PIH, which is a frequent complication associated with diabetes. After that I asked Mrs. B about her gestational age because it assists in managing pregnancy and planning timing and method of delivery. Apart from this ultrasound examination was also carried out on Mrs. B for abnormalities, confirm age of gestation, and monitor the size and weight of fetus. Uterine size, fetal activity, fetal heart rate evaluate and reflect fetus status and well. Other intervention which I carried out independently was to monitor blood sugar level frequently, as this was checked more often than usual according to the doctor. Also I made sure that each time when checking the blood sugar level a proper record of the result and presented to the health care team for evaluation and modification of the treatment. Many may need extra insulin during pregnancy to reach their blood sugar targets since insulin is not harmful to the baby. During her one of the clinic, Mrs. B was examined routinely and was found that there was glucose in the urine and the blood system level was above targets. I gave insulin therapy to control the sugar further. Also I advised on the meals, to cut down sweets, eat three small meals and one to three snacks a day, maintain proper meal times and include balanced fibre intake in the form of fruits, vegetables and whole grains. Mrs. B attended her clinic when she was 24 weeks, after examining Mrs. B, her blood glucose level was not in control as a result. So we had to admit Mrs B to the ante natal ward for insulin therapy. The aim here was to stabilize the blood glucose level. Mrs. B was admitted. I explained her about the ward, orientated about the ward protocols, meal hours and the special diet which she will have. The first 2 to 3 days, 4 point was done to find out if patient should be adequately controlled on diet, if not then insulin was recommended. Mrs. B was supposed to have 4 points procedure, so I kept her on nil by mouth post midnight. Blood specimen one was collected at 7am, then patient to have breakfast. Specimen 2 was taken at 9.30am. Specimen 3 was taken at 1.30pm and 4th one was taken at 6.30pm. Moreover, the health care team as a whole had collaborative role towards care of the pregnant mother who was reaching 26 week gestation. Effective ante natal care for women with diabetes mellitus should be provided by a multidisciplinary team in a joint diabetes and antenatal clinic (Fraser, 2009). The woman is seen often as required in order to maintain good glycaemia control. Treatment depends on the blood glucose levels. The midwife should involve both the diabetic nurse or (midwife) specialist and dietician in dietary interventions. Mrs. B was advised by the dietician about nutrition; ideally diabetic women who anticipate pregnancy will follow a prescribed well balanced dietary regimen before conception and will be in a state of good metabolic control. The dietician advised Mrs. B on the caloric requirement for the normal weight client is 35 calories per kilogram. Doctors advised Mrs. B on insulin treatment. Physiotherapist advised Mrs. B on importance of moderate exercise during pregnancy example walking, swimming because it helps lower blood glucose level this decrease need for insulin. Also Mrs. B was advised by the doctor on other medical management such as oral metformin medications. Nurses should also monitor blood glucose on a regular basis throughout pregnancy. So counselling before pregnancy (for example about preventive folic acid) and multi disciplinary management are important for good pregnancy outcome. Moreover, highlighting the reasons for the interventions carried out gives an idea that why this particular nursing intervention on Mrs. B who was diagnosed as gestational diabetes. Firstly as a nurse, I identified Mrs. B at GDM risk. It was better that her problem was identified earlier or else if she would not have been attending her clinics there would have been increased risk for hyperglycaemia, infection, pregnancy induced hypertension and also hydramnios. Since Mrs. B was diabetic, the infant would have been at high risk of macrosomia and also congenital abnormalities. All this would have lead to difficulties in vaginal deliveries. Secondly, baseline vital signs, height, weight should be monitored in every subsequent visits. Blood pressure was taken when I asked Mrs. B to lie in a left lateral position so that an accurate reading was achieved. Mrs. B was also monitored by (sonography) ultrasound examining subsequently during her visits for fetal abnormalities, confirmation of g estational age and also to monitor size and weight of fetus. Activity (kicking) fetal movement was also maintained by nurses to find that fetus remains active. Collaboratively, urinalysis, culture and sensitivity were done to detect asyptomatic bacteriuria, a precursor to event pyelonephritis, to which the diabetes is especially prone. Midwives also performed a fundal examination, initially and subsequently atleast once a trimester for Mrs. B to detect any vascular changes accompanying diabetes. Mrs. B was also advised by the dietician on nutrition and hydration to maintain blood glucose targets to normal. Client knowledge about self monitoring by the midwives allows the development of an appropriate teaching plan to ensure compliance and minimize risk of complications. Mrs. B was also educated on support system and services because of the high risk of the pregnancy so that necessary support system and assistance can be obtained. Psychosocial and economic factors with special consid eration to the parental stress evoked by the high risk pregnancy was explained to her so that she does not take too much stress which can lead to high risk pregnancy, research has shown that gestational diabetes experience more stressful responses than pre gestational diabetics for all aspects of the medical regimen (Perry, (2006). 4 points procedure was done on her following the glucose tolerance test for the proceeding of insulin therapy. After insulin therapy Mrs. B was discharged and called for her clinic subsequently to detect whether blood glucose was maintained or not. During her visits, the midwives performed abdominal examination, vaginal examination and fundal palpation to establish and affirm that fetal growth is consistent with gestational age during progression of pregnancy. This was done to detect fetal growth, fetal lie, fetal presentation etc. When Mrs. B was 35 weeks, during her clinic it was found that the blood glucose level was maintained, there was no glucose in urine and no other signs as before due to gestational diabetes two which was medically controlled. To sum up, later on during her 37 weeks of gestation Mrs. B was having labour pain and she was rushed to hospital with all her belongings needed together with the babies’ clothes and other things. She was admitted direct to the labour ward in the preparation room. fetal heart rate monitoring and vaginal examination was done. She was 3-4cm dilated and was taken to first stage room for further assessment on partogram and vaginal examination. The following morning she gave birth to a healthy term infant without signs of distress and or hypoglycaemia. Therefore, our strength was that we collaboratively, the health care team identified the patient at risk on an early stage that is why there was no complication during or after delivery. And our weakness lies if all the health care team do not identify high risk of pregnancy at an early stage therefore, early booking is equally very important. (Approx words:2500) References Brown, D., Edward, H. (2005). Medical-Surgical Nursing: Assessment Management of Clinical Problem. Australia: Elsevier. Crisp, J., Taylor, C. (2013). Potter Perry’s Fundamentals of nursing (4th ed.). Australia: Elsevier. Fraser, D, M., Cooper, M, A. (2009). Myles Textbook for Midwives (15th ed.). Australia: Elsevier. Perry, L. (2006). Maternity Nursing (7th ed.). Australia: Elsevier. Mc Kinney, E., James, S., Murray, S., Ashwill, J. (2005). Maternity Child Nursing (2nd ed.). Australia: Elsevier. Littleton, L, Y., Engebretson, A. (2005). Maternity Nursing Care. USA: Elsevier. 1

Health Benefits of Alternative Therapies

Health Benefits of Alternative Therapies The popularity of alternative therapies in the past two decades has been accompanied by a proliferation of sociological works in investigation different aspects of this phenomenon. A major strand of the literature in the sociology of alternative medicine, which concerns three social actors: users of alternative therapies, practitioners of alternative therapies; and physicians (the orthodoxy). Research on users of alternative medicine has mainly investigated the causes of peoples use of these modalities and has focused on why people use alternative medicine? Research suggests the one reason people use alternative therapy, such as Occupational Therapy, is that they are dissatisfied with the health outcomes of orthodox medicine (Holden, 1978; West, 1988; Sharma, 1996; Spiegel et al., 1998). It is argued that conventional medicine has been unable to cure degenerative and chronic illness and has failed to alleviate pain associated with conditions such as arthritis, and back and neck injuries (Ingliss and West, 1983; Anyinam, 1990). Sharmas (1992) qualitative study of 30 users of various alternative therapies in Britain, including Occupational therapist. Provided support to the idea that patients seek alternative therapies in order to cure an illness that has not been successfully dealt with by GPs. Similarly, Furnham and Smith (1988) and Furnham and Forey (1994) in their British studies compared patients of GPs and patients of alternative practitioners and showed that the latter group was ore sceptical of the efficacy of orthodox medicine. T hey reached this conclusion based on the responses of subjects to statements such as Doctors relieve or cure only a few problems that their patients have, and Most people are helped a great deal when they go to a doctor. Other arguments have been made about the use of alternative therapies, looking at how patients arent necessarily dissatisfied with the health outcome of biomedicine, but rather they are dissatisfied with the medical encounter or the doctor patient relationship (Parker and Tupling, 1976; Taylor, 1984; Easthope, 1993). According to this argument in the literature, doctors spend too little time with, and have little respect for, their patients, who often are not informed of the nature of their illnesses, diagnoses and prognoses. It is argued that doctors have lost their human touch and todays medicine can best be characterised as Fordist medicine which produces alienated and dissatisfied patients. In support of this argument, Sharmas (1992) interviews with alternative therapists clients reveal that they believe GPs spend too little time with patients. Furnham and Forey (1994) also found that users of alternative medicine are more likely to believe that GPs do not listen to what their pa tients have to say. Health Promotion According to Nelson (1997) Occupational therapists understand the potentials of various occupational forms that are meaningful and purposeful to the individual. The therapist hopes and predicts that the occupational form will be perceptually, symbolically, and emotionally meaningful to the person; that the occupational form and the meanings the person actively assigns to it will result in multidimensional set of purposes, and that the person will engage in a voluntary occupational performance. In other words, when therapy is best, the person is full of purpose. Therefore Occupational therapists have a huge concern set around the promotion of health. Thorogood (2004) argues that sociology as a discipline is based on critical analysis and as such, can contribute to health promotion by focusing on questions that go beyond simple definition. In other words sociology can and should engage in debate around why health promotion has evolved the way it has rather then merely trying to establish a static definition of health promotion itself. In this way sociology can help health promotion to be reflective in terms of its role and development. While this means sociology is distinct from health promotion, it is none the less a crucial contributor to the development and practice of health promotion. Ryan et al (2006) approach to health promotion states that it has been hugely influenced by the fact that medicine has been the dominant model within health-service provision and a clear division exists between those who support the medical model of health and those who argue for a more holistic and/ or social model of health. Within health services, models of care are fairly well understood and well established as conceptual entities. Models of Health Care Looking at the bio-medical model, Atkinson (1988) discusses how within this model health is the absence of biological abnormality, it believes diseases have specific causes, that the human body is likened to a machine to be restored to health through personalised treatments that arrest, or reverse, the disease process, and that the health of a society is seen as largely dependent on the state of medical knowledge and the availability of medical resources. Bio-medicine and the health care practices arising from it occupy a paradoxical position in contemporary societies. On the one hand, there is continued enthusiasm for new medical breakthroughs as people seek treatment for an increasing range of conditions. On the other hand, there is also some disillusionment with clinical medicine and growing distrust of doctors etc. despite massively increased investments in medical research and health care, most of the diseases of modern society remain stubbornly resistant to effective treatment, let alone cure. Health professionals and doctors in particular, have been criticised for having a detached, impersonal approach. Some have linked this to the bio-medical model objectifying illness and reducing patients to little or more then a collection of symptoms. Critics such as Oliver (1996) have argued that more attention should be given to the social, psychological and political aspects of illness and disability. Professionals such as Occupational Therapist have responded to this by looking beyond the medical model and adopting a more person-centred approach to patient care. In this context, sociologists are interested in the ways that individual experiences of illness are shaped by wider social contexts, emphasising that the transition from health to illness involves significant changes in social status and therefore the attention of governments and an increasing number of health professionals has turned to the social and environmental influences on health giving rise to a new social- medical model approach to health based on disease prevention and health promotion. Taylor Field (2007) focuses on how health is more than the absence of disease; it is a resource for everyday living. It looks at how diseases are caused by a combination of factors, many of them being environmental. The focus of enquiry is on the relationship between the body and its environment and how significant improvements in health care are mostly likely to come from changes in peoples behaviour and in the conditions under which they live. Occupational therapists draw their attention on this model and it can be understood in there inter-related approaches. The first focuses on individual behaviour and lifestyle choices, the second looks at peoples immediate social environment, and their relationships with others and the third is concerned with general socio-economic and environmental influences. The emergence of a new philosophy sometimes referred to postmodern value system has also led to the rise in alternative therapies (Bakx, 1991; Easthope, 1993; Sharma, 1993). Today most people regard nature as caring, gentle, safe and benevolent; they hold anti-science and anti-technology attitudes (Kurtz, 1994;Park 1996); they believe in a holistic view of health (Anyinam, 1990); they reject authority, especially scientific authority, and demand participation (Taylor, 1984; Easthope, 1993; Riessman, 1994); and they believe in individual responsibility (Cassileth, 1989; Coward, 1989). Alternative practitioners, such as Occupational therapist, commonly use natural and non-invasive treatments, espouse a holistic view of health, allow patients participation in the process of healing (Aaskter,1989), and stress that health comes from within the individual and it is ultimately the responsibility of the individual to achieve a desired state of health. (Coward, 1989) Sussman (p.31) looks at the holistic concept of behaviour stresses an organic and/ or functional relationship, a continuing interaction, and a fundamental interdependence among the traditionally defined parts or areas of human behaviour. Accordingly, the understanding of any aspect of human behaviour or any human problem involves consideration of the potentialities and limitations inherent in human biology; the characteristic ways of feeling, thinking, acting, and relating to other that comprise personality; the nature of physical environment, including natural resources, topographical features, and the man-made environment; the social nature of and the impact of significant social or reference groups; the nature of culture, its potentialities and the limitations it imposes; and the significance of time and mans orientation to time as a key factor in the ordering and regulation of behaviour. In many respects, the holistic philosophy represents a reaction against certain forms of fragmentation and compartmentalisation which have characterised both scientific investigation and the approach to human problems during the first half of the 20th century. Implementation of the holistic approach is seen today in the growing body of research which crosses traditional discipline lines and in the renewed emphasis on comprehensive medicine, comprehensive mental health, and a comprehensive approach to a broad spectrum of human problems including delinquency, alcoholism, unemployment, disability etc. the holistic approach is compatible with an increasing awareness of the tendency for various forms of pathology to occur in clusters. Medical Care and Professionalism Medical care, once dominated by a restricted orthopaedic orientation, is now based on a growing recognition of the basic relationship between the anatomical, physiological, biochemical, and psychological functioning of the human body, and the reciprocal relationship between a disabled persons body functioning manifestation of his personality and his capacity to fulfil basic roles in job, family and community. In contrast, look at the study undergone by à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ All participants found that Occupational therapy was being underutilised. One reason provided for this was the lack of understanding about the role of OT by other staff members. Participants of this study felt that the perspective of OT as more of a rehabilitation service and less as a holistic service had an impact on the low use of OT, this being within a hospice setting. They found OT was often defined too much by exercises or functional tasks, and not recognising functional tasks become even more critical to someone who is becoming weaker and weaker and is in the process of dying. The hallmark of professionalism has been accountability for the application of expert knowledge to the service of others (Goode, 1960) Accountability includes both the obligation to answer questions regarding decisions and/or actions and the availability and applications of sanctions for illegal or inappropriate actions and behaviours (Brinkerhoff, 2004) health professionals have historically been accountable to their regulatory bodies for their autonomous exercise of professional judgment in determining services provided (Abbott, 19988). In recent years, the traditional approach to health professional accountability has been called into question for several reasons, one being escalation health expenditures (Degeling, 2000). Because all professional decisions related to health care have financial implications, this control has frequently translated into greater limits on professional practice. Occupational Therapy and Rehabilitation Sussmans (1965) work on the sociology of rehabilitation is well recognised and has the support of the American Sociological Association. The book emerged from a conference on Sociological Theory, Research and Rehabilitation held in Carmel, California in March 1965. According to Sussman, public interest in the concept of rehabilitation has greatly intensified in recent years. The term rehabilitation is being broadly applied to many kinds of disabling human problems, including physical disability, mental illnesses, mental retardation, alcoholism, drug addiction etc. Rehabilitation is used in both a limited and very comprehensive sense. It may refer to services concerned with education, physical functioning, psychological adjustment, social adaptions, vocational capabilities, or recreational activities. Occupational therapy rehabilitation can involve one of several types of therapy, used together or separately, to help patients enter or re-enter the workforce. This can include physical therapy, counselling, and job training. The overall goal of these therapies is to remedy any situation that may cause a patient to fail to perform in both personal and professional environments. Physical occupational therapy rehabilitation may be needed if a patient has been either injured or born with a physical handicap which interferes with everyday living. This can include the re-training of certain major muscle groups as well as education in using a wheelchair or other mobility aid to perform simple and complex tasks. In some more severe cases, employment may never be a possibility due to extreme physical limitations. For these patients, occupational therapy rehabilitation may act to teach them tasks as basic as eating with a fork and spoon or bathing themselves. Counselling for mentally ill, aggressive or depressed patients is also a type of occupational therapy rehabilitation. Often, an employer will require specific workers to undergo this type of treatment to help them interact more efficiently with co-workers, stay motivated on the job, or to fully rehabilitate them after a traumatic experience or depressive episode. This helps patients overcome emotional issues that may hinder job performance or social development, and allows them to effectively express issues and interact with customers or clients. Sometimes occupational therapy rehabilitation involves specific job training courses. This method may be used for mentally handicapped or brain damaged individuals, or those who have lost employment due to emotional or mental issues. Job training helps patients learn specific job related skills including how to perform basic job duties like lifting or typing, as well as how to interact with co-workers and customers. In some cases, an occupational therapist or counsellor may be hired to settle a dispute or problem between colleagues or groups within a workplace. This may include argumentative co-workers who are aggressive to the point of hindered job performance. In these situations, the therapist will teach proper coping methods for dealing with anger and jealously in the workforce in the form of individual counselling sessions, seminars, or group therapy meetings. Therapists and doctors often work together in occupational therapy rehabilitation for their patients. A combination of therapies and medications may be used in order to obtain full rehabilitative results. The primary goal of these tactics is to allow patients to live and work as normal as possible in society. Disability and Rehabilitation When looking at Occupational therapy in terms of rehabilitation, the experts agree that effective rehabilitation of the physically disabled involved helping the client to regain physical and social functions lost through injury or disease. Haber (1973) argues that disability should be conceptualised and measured by functional in capacities. Disability is then the inability to perform usual role activities as a result of a physical or mental impairment (loss of function) of long-term duration (Haber and Smith, 1971) One view of rehabilitation success is taken by Ludwig and Adams (1968) and Diamond et al. (1968) who use patient cooperation and participation in treatment as a measure of outcome. Acceptance of the sick role implies that the patient cooperate and participate in the treatment process as outlined by the experts so that he can get better (Parsons, 1951; 1975). In this context, the good and successful patient is judged to be the person who complies with the sick role. Consequently, rehabilitation success might be an artefact. There is no evidence to show that staff members tend to concentrate their efforts on those patients that they value highly or think have the best chance of demonstrating improvement (Kelman, 1964). However, appearance of patient motivation and cooperation in the rehabilitation settings does not accurately predict independent living after discharge (Kelman and Wilner, 1962). According to Nagi, when trying to define the concept of disabilities looks at the terms impairment and disability. He explores these terms by looking at how every individual lives within an environment in which he is called upon to perform certain roles and tasks. The ability and inability of people can be meaningfully understood and estimated only in terms of the degree of their fulfilment of these roles and tasks, when an individual is described as being unable the description in incomplete till it answers the question, unable to do what?. In this sense, ability-inability constitutes an assessment of the individuals level of functioning within an environment. Two categories of inability can be delineated on the basis of the time of onset. First are congenital inabilities. There are inborn limitations that are the result of anatomical malformations, physiological abnormalities, mental deficiencies, and/or general constitutional inadequacies. To be sure, abilities of all humans are subject tot limitations. Further more, Nagi argues, people differ greatly in degree of ability-inability without nec essarily suffering from an active disorder or a residual impairment. However, although the cutting point between able and unable is hard to distinguish, the more severe conditions are usually recognised. The OASI program have defined disability as the inability to engage in any substantial gainful activity by reason of a medically determinable impairment that is expected to be of long-continues and indefinite duration or to result in death. Potential for rehabilitation indicated a prognostic evaluation of the levels of functioning the individual is capable of reaching under certain circumstances. The assessment of ability-inability is obviously a necessary step toward the evaluation of rehabilitation potential. Occupational therapists ask patients to perform a variety of tasks that would require the use of different types of tools and equipment. Information sought in this evaluation includes an assessment of the following attributes: the quality and quantity of work done, physical and interpersonal work adjustment. Experience and skills, the degree to which the impairment disables the individual in the performance of certain tasks. The rehabilitation potential of the patient. Occupational therapists are informed by the physician when the risk to a patients health precluded certain tasks or the whole occupational evaluation. Criticisms. Throught the mobilisation of the efforts of a highly trained team of medical including occupational therapists, rehabilitation envisions the maximum physical, mental, social, vocational and economic recovery possible. While the goals are attained many very with each individual case, Julius Roth has questioned whether such goals should legitimately be set by the patient or the therapist. The ultimate success of the program rests upon a remarkably intriguing interplay of the biogenic, sociogenic, and psychogenic components of human behaviour The delivery of Occupational Therapy Looking at where and how occupational therapy is delivered, it is delivered in Primary and Secondary Care following the patients journey and is governed by care pathways which include formal and informal carers.  The service is equitable in access and is provided from cradle to graves. Primary care is provided for patients at first contact with the health service. By this very nature it must be generalist, being able to cope with whatever problems arise. General practitioners are the traditional primary care doctors but in recent years we have seen rise to a primary care team, including Occupational Therapist, Physiotherapist and speech therapist to name a few, offering a wider range of health professionals and their respective skills. The World Health Organisation states in its blueprint for Health for All by the Year 2000 that there should be a special emphasis on primary health care services, particularly in developing countries in which funding is even more limited. This recent emphasis on the importance of health care has further improved its status in the medical world. This is particularly true in areas in occupational therapy when there is a focus on for example, elderly in residential care, and other community care related interventions. According to Tussing Wren (2006) literature on primary care indicates a need for the following, all of which are weak or absent in the Irish system: A primary care system which addresses the health needs of a mainly healthy population rather than concentrating on intervention in episodes of illness, an emphases on disease management for the chronically ill, supportive of self-care and home care, stronger evidence-based medicine, with appropriate protocols and guidelines, peer review and quality assurance, primary care infrastructure, supportive institutions, skilled substitutions, and GP interface. On the other hand secondary care is usually specialist services that require beds, and sometimes expensive equipment. Therefore it is usually based in hospitals. For example, stroke patients may be referred to Occupational Therapist by physicians after hospitalisation. Occupational therapist might then work with them in a rehabilitation centre using specific equipment to regain independence. Emerging Services Within recent years, much emphasis has been given to the development and expansion of a variety of out of hospital services for the chronically ill. However, such demonstrations continue to be slow to develop. Among the many issues involved in these attempts are those concerning the roles to be assumed by hospital or by community based agencies in relation to the provision of community care for those disabled patients who no longer require active hospital in-patient treatment. The studyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ was undertaken in order to define a more appropriate hospital role in relation to the continuing needs for rehabilitation care of a chronically ill and disabled population discharge to the community following extended hospital rehabilitation treatment. It evolved against a background of rather pessimistic clinical impressions and retrospective research probes which emphasised this populations failu re to maintain optimum health and social functioning in the community despite the achievement of these level while in the hospital. More specifically, concerns centred on this populations high rate of rehospitalisation, its deterioration in social functioning and its failure to use or to receive needed health and health related services while in the community. Acute Care Occupational therapy plays an essential role in the acute care hospital and in other medically related facilities from the rehabilitation hospital, to sub acute sites, to extended care facilities, to the facilities of the future. Though there are issues when it comes to acute care, Torrance, (1993) states that with increasing technology and quicker discharge, the need for therapeutic occupation increases. Occupational therapists are needed to work with patients in problem solving self-care occupations amidst the constraints of the tubes, monitors and fixators; to activate patients at risk because of the deleterious effects of bed rest; to help patients and caregivers plan realistically from what the patients will do and for how the patients will live and care for themselves after discharge but before healing; and to assess patients quality of life before and after hospitalisation. Nelson (1997:20) gives an example: For an example of the importance of therapeutic occupation in an acute care setting, consider a 5 month old girl born with neuromuscular disease of unknown etiology. The disease is characterised by the total absence of many of the proximal muscles, including those responsible for respiration. Picture her with multiple intubations for respiration and nutrition and with life-support monitors. The occupational therapist carefully removes her from the crib and bounces her gently while talking to her in high-pitched, rhythmical tones. In response to this occupational form, the infants adaptions are to learn to use the muscles controlling her vocal cords as she imitates the therapist; to learn to use the remaining muscles in her left arm as she grabs the therapists keys; and most of all to begin to learn that she too has a legitimate place in the human family. The therapist next places a piece of cloth playfully over the childs face, as in our prior example of the importance of peek-a-boo in healthy development. Like a health baby, this baby too removes the cloth and laughs. Despite the high technology setting, this baby also needs to encounter the occupational form of peek-a-boo in order to develop a sense of self and a sense of other. Therefore Occupational models of practise are needed for the acute care hospital for patients at all points on the lifer span. Since many health problems require a level of medical treatment and personal care that extends beyond the range of services normally available in the patients home, modern society has developed formal institutions for patients care intended to help meet the more complex health needs of its members. Here, much of an occupational therapist work is carried out. Usually in rehabilitation centres within the hospital. Looking at the hospital in more detail, the work of Cockerham (2007) draws on how it is the major social institution for the delivery of health care in the modern world, and how it offers considerable advantages to both patients and society. From the individuals point of view, the injured or sick person has access to centralised medical knowledge and the greatest array of technology within the hospital, and from the standpoint of society, as Renee Fox and Talcott Parsons (1952) argue, that when patients are within the hospital they are protecting their family from many disruptive effects of caring for the ill in the home and operates as a means of guiding the sick and injured into medically supervised institutions where their problems are less disruptive for society as a whole. Many other concepts of Parsons have been criticised, taking his concept of the sick role, it has been argued that Parsons model cannot be applied to chronic illnesses from which patients cannot recover. More significantly, it had been shown that access to the sick role is rather more problematic that Parsons model assumes. It has been suggested that parsons is really talking about a patient role rather then a sick role as there is a distinction between patients subjective experiences of illness and being objectively defined by doctors as having a disease. It is true to say Occupational therapy rejects a lot of Talcott Parons sick role ideas, who believes that when an individual is in the sick role he or she is exempt from responsibility for the incapacity, as it is beyond their control, and is also exempt from normal social role obligations. While this is true to say, Lober (1975:214) observes that while the patient is in the hospital there is an idea of voluntary cooperation , one to one intimacy, and conditional permissiveness, for example, being temporarily excused from normal social activities on the condition of seeking medical advice and care. Coe (1978) has also argued that acceptance is the most common form of patient adjustment to hospital routine and the most successful for short-stay patients, which most patients seeking Occupational therapy are, as the main aim is to get the patients back into society. Chronically Ill and Care According to Oliver (1996), as societies modernise the burden of disease is shifting from acute to chronic long-term illness and disability. While clinical medicine can treat many of these chronic conditions, it cannot cure many of them, and thus more and more people are spending a greater proportion of their lives coping with illness. Occupational therapist deal with many terminally ill patients. According to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. Individuals with terminal illness face a number of problems related to social, emotional, spiritual and their physical well-being. Some individuals have expressed that the feeling of being a burden to family and friends is more distressing than physical pain (Lloyd, 1989). Carey, 1975 looks at how these individuals with terminal illnesses find the biggest challenges in looking for satisfactory meaning in their new life situation whole facing mortality. Care for these patients has come along way, as in the past the care had primary focus on alleviating only the physical distress of the illness. Kubler-Ross (1997) describes how physicians, who are held back by their own views and feeling on death, are often unable to reach out to their dying patients to provide them with care and comfort. Therefore death in the past was almost seen as a failure of medicine. This ideology began to change with the emergence of the hospice in 1967 by De Cicely Saunfers, who founded St. Christophers hospice. Today we can recognise the hospice as a specialised facility for the care of dying patients that supports them in living life fully and comfortably while confronting death (National Hospice Organisation, 1996). The American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA) (1998) states the following inn relation to occupational therapy and the hospice: The AOTA affirms the right of a dying person to have access to a caring community within the health care system and believes in the need for personalised care of the dying individual throughout the course of a terminal illness. Occupational Therapy is based on the belief that all individuals engage in occupationsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Occupational therapy practitioners are uniquely qualified to help the dying person continue to engage in meaningful daily occupations within the hospice community of care. (p.872) When a patient who has a terminal illness continues to lose their ability to care for themselves and carryout usual daily activities, fostering the patients independence in self-care, work, and leisure usually becomes a top priority of intervention (Holland Tigges, 1981; Tigges, 1983; Tigges Marcil, 1988). Tigges (1983) explains a framework that looks at the human need of mastery-productive use of tie, energy, interest, and attention, this is also known as the occupational role of performance paradigm (9.163). Although some individuals with terminal illnesses are able to maintain many of their usual roles, its not always true for others. According to Gammage, McMahon, and Shanahan (1976), occupational therapist have a unique role in assisting patients to accept their new role as an individual with an illness and relinquish old occupational roles. Not only do occupational therapists focus on roles los